SS

Turkoman Figural Bronze

Turkoman "figural" coins have images of humans or animals, in contrast to most Islamic coins which have only lettering. Most were struck c. 1150-1260, during the Crusades, in the region of the upper Euphrates river (the Jazira) or in central Turkey. Many are remarkably large--larger than contemporary Byzantine coins and larger than other contemporary Islamic copper coins.

DRAFT only. Not ready for viewing!

Contents: Three pages:
This page: Types that are in the standard reference work, Spengler and Sayles
Another page: All types that are not in the Spengler and Sayles volumes.
A third page explaining names and legends.

Coin at the upper right: S&S 28, Najm al-Din Alpi. AD 1152-1176. Click the image to go down its place in the list and more information about it.

Skip down to S&S types 1, 6, 11, 19, 30, 35, 39, 59, 66, 68, 79

Go to: Artuqid coins or Zengid coins.

What's new? 2024, Nov. 17: S&S 23.
2024, Sept. 4: S&S 7.
2024, June 8: S&S 22. S&S 26 with two countermarks.
2024, June 2: S&S 14.

Comments.
Spengler and Sayles. Anyone interested in these coin types should consult S&S which has far more information--especially about the meaning of the figures--than this web page.
Images. The images are of coins in a private collection. Image sizes below are all proportional to the sizes of the coins. If the coin is illustrated, the size given is the size of that particular coin. If the type is not illustrated, the size given is the size of a typical coin of that type.
Completeness. Many S&S types are not illustrated or discussed. They might be added later.
Legends. This page adds translations of some of the legends, whereas S&S has only transliterations. Legends are given in full even if the illustrated coin does not show it all. Be aware that other sources may use "k" for our "q" (e.g "Artukid" for "Artuqid") or "U" for "A" (as in "Urtuqid" for "Artuqid") or "a" for "e" (as in "Zangid" for "Zengid"). For more about Turkoman legends and translations of Arabic words, see a page on legends. S&S 31 on this page below is a good example, thoroughly explained.
Credits. Many descriptions and especially the legend translations have been extracted from worksheets written by Gary Leiser to accompany his collection which has been donated to the Hallie Ford Museum of Art at Willamette University, in Salem, Oregon. They are used with permission. He has been very helpful. Similarly, Steve Album (of Stephen Album Rare Coins) has helped many times.
Some descriptions and translations below are from the David Collection [DC] webpages and so noted. They have links to the excellent historical notes that are on the David Collection webpages for each type they have.
Dates. See far below on this page for dates on the coins.
How many types are there? There are 77 figural types in the two S&S volumes. S&S volume I on coins of the Artuqids has S&S types 1 through 58, of which 2 are not figural (types 20 and 41) for a total of 56 figural types in the Artuqid volume. S&S volume II on coins of the Zengids has S&S types 59 through 89, making 31 types, of which 10 types are not figural (types 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 86, and 89) for a total of 21 figural types in the Zengid volume.
Figural types that are not in S&S have their own page.

Artuqids [a.k.a. Urtuqids] of Hisn Kayfa and Amid (Types 1-20, in S&S volume 1)

Fakhr al-Din Qara Arslan, 1148-1174. "Fakhr al-Din" means "Pride of the faith/religion." Types 1-8.

S&S 1. This type was struck by Fakra al-din Qara Arslan, the fourth ruler of the Artuqid dynasty and the first to issue figural types. (S&S 7 explictly gives his lineage.) (There is a Danishmendid figural type which is earlier). Note how the obverse on this Islamic coin copies a Byzantine coin with an image of Christ!

S&S 1
Fakhr al-Din Qara Arslan
AH 543-570. AD 1148-1174
25-24 mm. 5.33 grams. Pierced.
Undated
Facing nimbate bust of Christ with two dots in each limb.
5-line Arabic legend with lines either side.

S&S 6
30 mm. 12.81 grams.
Fakhr al-Din Qara Arslan
AH 543-570. AD 1148-1174.
Struck AH 560 = AD 1164/5.

S&S 7. 28-30 mm. This example, 27 mm.
Fakhr al-Din Qara Arslan
AH 543-570. AD 1148-1174.
Struck AH 562 = AD 1166/7
Obverse: Draped half-figure facing directly, long hair falling to each side, Arabic inscription to right and left of his head, all surrounded by a circle of dots
Inscription: "year two [up right] and sixty and five hundred [down left, so "year 562"]"
Reverse: central inscription with second inscription on right and left sides of it, all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: Malik al-Umara’ (king of the amirs) Qara Arslan b. [son of] Da’ud b. [son of] Sukman b. [son of] Artuq
Lateral inscription: al-Imam [down right] al-Mustanjid bi-‘llah [down left] (the caliph, 555-66/1160-70)

S&S 8. 28-29 mm. (As S&S 7, but with an additional small figure to the right of the bust.) Half-length figure facing with small winged figure to right/4-line inscription

Nur al-Din Muhammad, 1175-1185. "Nur al-Din" means "Light of the Faith/Religion." Types 9-11.

S&S 9

S&S 9
33-32 mm. 13.24 grams.
Nur al-Din Muhammad
1175-1185
Struck AH 571 = AD 1175/6.
Figure of a nimbate angel facing the viewer as if alighting, with right wing up and left wing down holding a scroll over his wrists.
It is probably the Archangel Gabriel who has the attribute of the scroll looping over his right wrist. Gabriel was a messenger to Muhammad.
Upwards on right, beginning at 4:00: sana ahad wa sab‘in, downwards on left wa khamsmi’a,
“year one and seventy and five hundred”

Reverse (in Kufic):
Malik al-umara Muhammad King of the Princes [Lord of the commanders] Muhammad
ibn Qara Arslan ibn son of Qara Arslan son of
Da’ud ibn Sukma   Da’ud son of Sukma/
n ibn Artuq Nasir   n son of Artuq Nasir
amir al-Mu’minin Commander of the Faithful
Upwards on right: al-imam, downwards on left: al-mustadi bi-amr / allah
“the Imam al-Mustadi bi-amr Allah” [See also DC] "The figure is probably a representation of the Archangel Gabriel (Jibra‘il) carrying a scroll, and, as it was struck in the first year of Nur al-Din’s reign, it is thought to have represented Gabriel bringing the message of the new ruler’s accession to his subjects. The scroll has always been an important attribute of Gabriel, as the herald of God. In a region where there was a heterogeneous population of Muslims, Christians and Jews Gabriel would have been a familiar figure to all of them."

When Saladin conquered the west half of the Jazira (the upper Euphrates region), Nur-al-Din Muhammad, an Artuqid ruler, sided with him and in 1183 got the important city of Diyarbakr (modern Amid) as a reward. Ibn Abi Tayy reported the city had 100,000 candles and over a million books.

S&S 10. 28-30 mm. Enthroned ruler under pointed arch flanked on each side by an angel/4-line legend in square
Nur al-Din Muhammad
AH 562-81. AD 1167-85.
Struck 576/1180-81
Description: copper coin with Arabic inscriptions on both sides
Obverse: enthroned ruler under pointed arch flanked on each side by an angel, inscription on each side of throne, all within a circle of dots
Inscription: year 576
Reverse: central inscription in a linear square with second inscription around each side all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: Malik al-Umara’ (king of the amirs) Muhammad b. Qara Arslan b. Da’ud b. Sukman b. Artuq Nasir al-
Inscription around square: Imam al-Nasir li-Din Allah Amir al-Mu’minin (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225). Nasir al-Imam . . . means Defender of the Imam . . ., that is, the caliph

S&S 11

S&S 11
28-31 mm. 10.86 grams.
Nur al-Din Muhammad
AH 562-81. AD 1167-85.
Struck 578. 1182-3
Head with diadem facing left, curly hair, clean shaven/
six-line legend, legends either side.
Obverse: Youth wearing diadem facing left, curly hair, clean shaven, surrounded by an inscription all within a circle of dots
Inscription: In the name of God struck in Hisn year 578
Reverse: central inscription with a second inscription on the left and right sides, all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: Malik al-Umara’ (king of the amirs) Muhyi al-‘Adl (reviver of justice) Nur al-Din Muhammad b. Qara Arslan b. Artuq Nasir al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Allah (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225). Nasir al-Imam . . . means Defender of the Imam . . ., that is, the caliph
Lateral inscription: Cursed be he who dishonors (this coin). [This was apparently a warning against tampering with the coinage.]

S&S 12. 28-30 mm. Sasanian-style bust of ruler facing left, wearing crown/4-line legend in square
Qutb al-Din Sukman (II)
AH 581-597. AD 1185-1200. Struck 581.
Obverse: Sasanian-style bust of ruler facing left, wearing crown, curly beard, inscription around the bust all within a circle of dots
Inscription: In the name of God struck in Hisn year 581
Reverse: central inscription in a linear square with a second inscription around each side, all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: al-Malik al-‘Adil (the just king) Qutb al-Din Sokman b. Muhamad b. Qara Arslan b. Artuq Mu’in (helper of) al-Imam
Lateral inscription: al-Nasir li-Din Allah (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225), al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Din (this is Saladin, his overlord)

S&S 14. 24-31 mm.

S&S 14. 30-28.5 mm. This piece somewhat encrusted.
Qutb al-Din Sukman (II)
AH 581-597. AD 1185-1200.
Half-figure facing slightly to right, wearing a fringed headdress, holding a scepter in the right and a globe in the left
/3-line legend
Obverse inscription on each side of the bust. In cursive Kufic from 3:00 to 8:00 (sana) arba‘ wa tis‘in wa khamsmi’a
“year four and ninety and five hundred” [See DC]
Reverse: central inscription with second inscription at the top and at each side, all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: al-Malik al-Mas’ud (the fortunate king) Qutb al-Din Sokman b. Muhamad b. Qara Arslan
Surrounding inscription: al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Allah (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225), Amir al-Mu’minin
In cursive Kufic: al-malik al-(mas‘ud)/ qutb al-din sukman / ibn muhammad ibn (qara)
(6:00: arslan), 12:00: al-imam, (9:00: al-nasir amir,) 3:00: al-mu’minin
“The Fortunate King, Pole Star of the Faith, Sukman ibn Muhammad ibn Qara Arslan, the Imam al-Nasir, Commander of the Faithful” [See DC]

Nasir al-Din Mahmud, 1200-1222. "Nasir al-din" means "Defender of the Faith/Religion." Types 15-18.

S&S 15

S&S 15
30 mm. 15.63 grams. Fals.
Nasir al-Din Mahmud
AH 597-619. AD 1200-1222.

Obverse: two-headed eagle with stylized spread wings, inscription on the side of each wing
Inscription: Struck in Hisn year 610

Reverse: central inscription with second inscription at the top and at each side, all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: al-Malik al-Salih Mahmud b. Artuq, al-Malik al-‘Adil Abu Bakr (his Ayyubid overlord)
Surrounding inscription: al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Allah (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225), Amir al-Mu’minin

S&S 16. 28-31 mm. Two-headed eagle each wing in form of a bearded human head in profile/five-line legend
Nasir al-Din Mahmud
AH 597-619. AD 1200-1222.
Obverse: two-headed eagle, wings spread, each wing in form of a bearded human head in profile, inscription next to each wing all within a circle of dots and surrounded by another inscription
Inscription next to the wings: Struck in Amid year 614
Surrounding inscription: al-Malik al-Salih Nasir al-Dunya wa ‘l-Din Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Artuq
Reverse: central inscription with second inscription at the top and at each side, all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: al-Sultan al-Ghalib (the conquering sultan) ‘Izz al-Dunya wa ‘l-Din Kay Khusraw b. Qilich Arslan (Seljuk overlord)
Surrounding inscription: al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Allah (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225), Amir al-Mu’minin

S&S 18

S&S 18
26-25 mm. 6.40 grams.
Artuqids of Kayfa & Amid.
Nasir al-Din Mahmud
AH 597-619. AD 1200-1222.

Dirham (Bronze, 25 mm, 6.41 g, 5 h), citing Nasir al-Din Mahmud and the Ayyubid overlord al-Kamil I Muhammad (AH 615-635 / AD 1218-1238), Amid, AH 617 = AD 1220/1. Two-headed eagle with spread and stylized wings enclosed within a circle formed by two ovals; in the four inner arcs, 'al-Malik al-Salih Nasir al-Din'; in outer margin, 'Mahmud ibn Muhammad ibn Qara Arslan ibn Artuq'; (all in Kufic). Rev. Hexagram within a solid circle; in inner field, al-Malik / al-Kamil; in the triangles of the hexagram, 'Duriba bi-Amid sanah sab ashara sittami;a; in the outer margin, 'al-Imam al-Nasir al-Din Mahmud'; (all in Kufic). Spengler & Sayles 18.

From the Dr. David Majer Collection of Islamic coins, ex Album 38, 24 September 2020, 489. Ex. Leu 20-21 (2022, July 18), lot 3480.

S&S 19

S&S 19
28-27 mm. 11.11 grams.
Rukn al-Din Mawdud
AH 619-629. AD 1222-1232.

S&S 19, a second example.
27 mm. 10.32 grams.
Rukn al-Din Mawdud
AH 619-629. AD 1222-1232.

(S&S 20 is not figural.)

The Artuqids of Khartpert (Types 21-23, in volume 1)

[They are rare.]

S&S 21. Imad al-Din Abu Bakr ibn Fakhr al-Din Qara Arslan, (581-600 H/1185-1203 AD)
c. 27 mm.
A male figure riding a dragon to left; the figure’s right arm is wrapped around the dragon’s throat and the left arm bent upward. The dragon’s mouth is wide open and its tail is knotted and coiled upwards/
Reverse: malik al-umara’ muhiyy) al-‘adl ‘imad al-din / abu bakr ibn qara arsla / n ibn artuq nasir / al-imam al-nasir li-din allah
“(King of the Princes, Reviver of Equity), Pillar of the Faith Abu Bakr ibn Qara Arslan ibn Artuq, Defender of the Imam, Nasir li-Din Allah”
to right upwards: ithnatayn (wa thamanin) and to left downwards: (wa khamsmi’a)
“two (and eight and five hundred)" [See also DC.]

S&S 22.
S&S 22. Imad al-Din Abu Bakr ibn Fakhr al-Din Qara Arslan. ,
21 mm. 3.77 grams.
AH 581-600. AD 1185-1203.
Diademed head facing left
5-line inscription with lines up and down the right and left

S&S 23.

S&S 23. Imad al-Din Abu Bakr ibn Fakhr al-Din Qara Arslan. ,
22.6-20.3 mm. 3.13 grams.
AH 581-600. AD 1185-1203.

Obverse: Thin Roman-style diademed bust left
Al-Iman al-Nasir li-din Allah (around)
"The Caliph al-Naisr ... God"
Reverse: 3-line legend in square
Malik al-umara "Lord of the commanders"
Abu Bakr bin "Abu Bakr, son of
Qara Arslan "Qara Arslan"
Date 592 (AD 1196) in words beginning on the left and reading counterclockwise from the inside:
sanah "year" / khansami'a "five hundred" / tis'inwa "and ninety" /ithnain wa "and two"

The Artuqids of Mardin (Types 24-58, in volume 1)

Najm al-Din Alpi, 1152-1176.

S&S 26 with c/m

S&S 26 with countermark
28 mm. 16.62 grams.
Najm al-Din Alpi
AH 547-572. AD 1152-1176.
Countermark on the cheek of a type of his father, Husam al-Din Timurtash (AH 516-547, AD 11-22-1152).
S&S 26 does not have the mint name, but was struck in Mardin in south-eastern Turkey.

Obverse: Large male head facing right, long hair, countermark with inscription on cheek of the bust, all within a circle of dots
Inscription on c/m: Najm al-Din
Reverse: Central inscription surrounded by a continuation of it, all within a circle of dots
Inscription: Malik al-Umara (king of the amirs/commanders) Abu ‘l-Muzaffar Alpi b. Temurtash b. Il Ghazi b. Artuq

The silver type of the Seleucid ruler Antiochus VII (138-129 BC) next was likely the prototype for the obverses of S&S 26 and 27. Note the very similar hair.

Antiochus VII, 138-129
28 mm. This example is 16.41 grams.
Sear Greek 7092.

S&S 26 with two countermarks

S&S 26 with two countermarks
30-29 mm. 13.51 grams.
S&S 26 often comes with a single countermark, either the one above that says "Najm al-Din" or a two-line version that says "Najm al-Din/king of Diyarbakr". This coin has both countermarks. The two-line version is upside down on the check with the upper line weakly struck (it is upright when viewed from 11:00--lower right in the next photo.).

The one-line countermark is across the chin and upright when viewed from 4:00 (low in the next photo).

It is hard to be certain, but it looks like the shorter countermark is overstruck on the longer one.

S&S 27 (which has the obverse head of S&S 26 but with the countermark engraved into the die.)

S&S 27
29-27 mm. 11.88 grams.
Najm al-Din Alpi
AH 547-572. AD 1152-1176.
In this type the die had the countermark engraved into it.

Obverse: large male bust facing right, long hair, inscription on cheek of the bust, all within a circle of dots
Inscription: Title najm al-din “Star of the Faith” on the figure’s neck = Najm al-Din

Reverse: central inscription surrounded by a continuation of it, all within a circle of dots
Inscription: Malik al-Umara (king of the amirs/princes/commanders) / Abu ‘l-Muzaffar (Father of victory) / Alpi b. (at 3:00) Temurtash b. (at 12:00) Il Ghazi (at 9:00) b. Artuq [See also DC.]

S&S 28

S&S 28. Mitchner WoI 1027.
35-33 mm. 14.79 grams.
Najm al-Din Alpi
AH 547-572. AD 1152-1176.

Obverse: Two male busts in profile facing each other, shoulders draped, curly hair, inscriptions at top and bottom, all within a circle of dots
Top inscription: Najm al-Din
Bottom inscription: Malik Diyar Bakr (king [lord] of Diyar Bakr).
In lower left the Artuqid tamgha (seal) “Star of the Faith, Ruler of Diyarbakir”

Reverse: Virgin nimbate on r. and Byzantine emperor on l. both standing, inscription around the figures, all within a circle of dots. (Clearly this was modeled after a Byzantine type.)
Inscription: Abu ‘l-Muzaffar Alpi b. Timurtash b. Il Ghazi b. Artuq (the last word is low between the figures).
"Father of al-Muzaffer Alpi son of Timurtash son of Il-Ghazi son of Artuq." [Plant p. 81] Legends like these can help us know who was minting where and with what authority.

No date and no mint given.
Two diademed male busts in profile, facing each other, with long curly locks falling behind and a dot between the two faces.
in Naskh script, above: najm al-din, below malik diyarbakir,
Reverse: Two standing figures facing each other: to right Virgin nimbate, in traditional Byzantine garb, crowning a Byzantine emperor (to left) wearing in imperial vesture with orb in left hand
in Naskh anticlockwise beginning at 4:30: abu’l-muzaffar alpi / ibn / timurtash il-ghazi / ibn / artuq
“Father of Victory Alpi ibn Timurtash Il-Ghazi ibn Artuq” [See also DC.]

For S&S 28 the reverse design with Mary crowning the emperor was adopted from Byzantine coins.

Τhe prototype for the Turkoman reverse above is on many Byzantine coins beginning with Romanus III (not shown here), 1028-1034, and continuing for over a hundred years under later emperors. This is one of those later examples.
John III, 1222-1254.
Gold hyperperon. 27 mm. 4.35 grams.
Christ seated facing.
Full-length figure of the emperor crowned by the Virgin mary, nimbate.
Sear 2073. Struck at Magnesia.

Τhe same design is on other Byzantine types, including this low-value billion denomination we call a "trachy" (for its cup-shape).

29 mm. 3.52 grams. Cup-shaped.
Manuel I, 1143-1180
Christ enthroned, IC XC either side.
Manuel stading holding labarum and crowned by the Virgin.
MANVHΛ ΔΕCΠOT
M Θ in upper fields
Sear 1966. DOC IV.II plate XV.13 [This particular example is dated to "1167-1183(?)" which after the Turkoman coin above.]

S&S 29

S&S 29
31 mm. 14.32 grams.
Najm al-Din Alpi
AH 547-572. AD 1152-1176.
Struck 558. AD 1162

Obverse: bust of a man facing left, wearing shawl or draped gown, inscription around the figure all within a circle of dots
Inscription: al-Malik al-‘Alim al-‘Adil (the wise and just king) Najm al-Din, Malik Diyar Bakr (king of Diyar Bakr)

Reverse: robed ruler wearing triangular jeweled crown, inscription around the figure and at each side of his head all surrounded by a circle of dots
Inscription: Abu ‘l-Muzaffar Alpi b. Timurtash b. Il Ghazi b. Artuq year 558.
Obverse: From 5:00 to 7:00 in angular simple Kufic al-malik al-‘alim al-‘adil najm al-din malik diyarbakir
“The Enlightened, Just King, Star of the Faith, Ruler of Diyarbakir”
Reverse: from 5:00 to 7:00 in simple Kufic: abu’l-muzaffar alpi ibn timurtash ibn il-ghazi ibn artuq sana
at 3:00 thaman wa khamsin, 9:00 wa khamsmi’a
“Father of Victory, Alpi ibn Timurtash ibn Il-Ghazi ibn Artuq year eight and fifty and five hundred" [See also DC.]

S&S 30

S&S 30
29 mm. 11.06 grams.
Najm al-Din Alpi
AH 547-572. AD 1152-1176.

Obverse: two diademed male heads facing directly; inscription around the heads all within a circle of dots
Inscription: There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God, al-Mustanjid bi-‘llah (caliph, 555-66/1160-70), Amir al-Mu’minin
Reverse: female head facing directly, hair arranged in six rolls within a circle of dots surrounded by an inscription within another circle of dots
Inscription: Najm al-Din Malik Diyar Bakr (king of Diyar Bakr) Alpi b. Il Ghazi b. Artuq

S&S 30, another example, slightly larger
32-31 mm. 10.95 grams.

[Same type as above]

Qutb al-Din Il-Ghazi II, 1176-1184

S&S 31

S&S 31
32 mm. 10.23 grams. (Slightly larger than a US half-dollar.)
Qutb al-Din Il-Ghazi II
AH 572-580. AD 1176-1184.

Obverse: Male head facing right and upward, wearing diadem of linked squares, within a square of dots, inscription on each side of square all within a circle of dots
Inscription: Ibn Alpi b. Temur Tash b. Il Ghazi b. Artuq

Reverse: Central inscription surrounded by a circle of dots
Inscription: Il Ghazi li-Mawlana (for our lord/master) al-Malik al-‘Alim al-‘Adil Qutb al-Din Malik al-Umara (king of the amirs/commanders) Shah Diyar Bakr (Shah of Diyar Bakr in SE Turkey) [The same legend is translated with some different words three paragraphs below.]
Mint: none stated, probably Diyar Bakr

Names. If we translated his name we would get "Stands up for the Faith, Fights against infidels." As you can see, this is not a name like "Franklin Delano Roosevelt" that was given by his parents to him at birth. These are stylized titles taken after gaining power. Some names we use for Turkoman rulers incorporate a personal name, but many do not. Names that we use are often abbreviated to just titles that they chose for themselves. (More about names.) At first I thought this way of naming rulers was odd, but then I remembered that Augustus is not a personal name and the first coins of Augustus identified him as "CAESAR DIVI F" (son of the deified Caesar) and later he took the name "Augustus" which the Senate awarded him and means something like "Revered". You don't find his personal name "Octavian" on coins.

On this coin the name and titles we use for Qutb al-Din Il-Ghazi II are in the long reverse legend which, unusually, continues the reverse legend onto the obverse where it says:
Top: son of Alpi son of
Bottom: Timartush son of
Left: Il-Ghazi
Right: son of Artuq.
So, the geneology goes back four generations!

The reverse legend has five lines including
Il-Ghazi ["ghazi" means "one who fights against infidels". These are stylized titles.]
belonging to our lord, superior
the just one, pole of the religion [Qutb al-Din] ["Qutb" means "pole", so "stands up for", "al-Din" means "of the faith/religion"]
Lord of the emirs (commanders), Shah (lord)
of Diyarbakr [a region around a fortress, now a city with over 1 million people].
The name we know the ruler by, "Qutb al-Din Il-Ghazi II" consists entirely of titles as ruler without any part personal to him when he was young.

On S&S 31 the obverse type has a diademed head looking upward and is sometimes thought to have been modeled on the "eyes-to-heaven" obverse type of Constantine:

Constantine, AD 307-337. Struck c. 328 at Constantinople.
19 mm. 3.16 grams. An "AE3". (Much smaller than the coin above.)
Reverse: CONSTANTINIANA DAFNE
Victory seated left,
Head right "eyes to heaven" with diadem (Note how the Turkoman coin copies the diadem)
captive to left below, trophy in field
Mintmark: CONS, B in left field
RIC Constantinople 32

Some collectors do not think the Islamic coin above was modeled on this obverse, but that design is completely unprecedented for Islamic coins and old models are common for Turkoman coins. Some of the earliest types clearly have Byzantine models and others have older models, perhaps even Seleucid models from more than a thousand years earlier. Presumably old coin hoards were found and the coins served as models.

Another S&S 31

S&S 31
32-30 mm. 11.88 grams.
Qutb al-Din Il-Ghazi II
AH 572-580. AD 1176-1184.
Undated. Struck likely 572-576. 1176-1180.

[as above]

A third S&S 31.

S&S 31
30 mm. 11.09 grams.
Qutb al-Din Il-Ghazi II
AH 572-580. AD 1176-1184.
Undated. Struck likely 572-576. 1176-1180.

[as above]

S&S 32

S&S 32
35 mm. 14.29 grams.
Qutb al-Din Il-Ghazi II
AH 572-580. AD 1176-1184.
Possibly issued in AD 1181.

Husam al-Din Yuluq Arslan, 1184-1201. Types 33-36

S&S 33

S&S 33
33-31 mm. 11.96 grams.
Husam al-Din Yuluq Arslan
AH 580-597. AD 1184-1201
Struck AH 581. AD 1185/6.

Obverse: male bust facing directly, wearing crown and mantle, inscription on each side of bust all within a circle of dots
Inscription: Husam al-Din Yuluq Arslan

Reverse: central inscription within a six-pointed star of dots, second inscription around the outside of the star all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Dunya wa ‘l-Din Yusuf b. Ayyub (that is, Saladin his Ayyubid overlord)
Surrounding inscription: Struck in the year 581

S&S 34

S&S 34
33 mm. 14.56 grams.
Husam al-Din Yuluq Arslan
AH 580-597. AD 1184-1201
Struck AH 587-589, AD 1191-1193.

Obverse: large male bust on right facing left, smaller crowned Byzantine-style figure facing forward, inscription at the top, all surrounded by a circle of dots
Inscription: Husam al-Din Malik Diyar Bakr (King of Diyar Bakr in SE Turkey)

Reverse: central inscription of four lines, plus inscription to the right and left all within a circle of dots
Central inscription: al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Din (Saladin) Muhiyy dawlat Amir al-Mu’minin (reviver of the “state” of the Commander of the Faithful, that is, the caliph)
Lateral inscription: Yusuf b. Ayyub, which is a continuation of the name of Saladin (Joseph son of Job)

S&S 35

S&S 35
29 mm. 13.34 grams.
Artuqids of Mardin
Husam al-Din Yuluq Arslan
AH 580-597. AD 1184-1201
Dated 589 = 1193, the year of Saladin's death.

Obverse: four full-length figures in different positions, one in the center with large veiled head, seated toward the left, faced turned to the front, and draped in a long robe, all within a circle of dots. No inscription.
The middle one is often regarded as being in "an attitude of dejection" and the others "lamenting." If so, it can be interpreted as figures "mourning the death of Saladin." The date of the coin would fit that interpretation.

Reverse: Central inscription of 3 lines (see the next coin for the 5-line version) within a linear circle surrounded by a second inscription: Reverse three lines naming the Abbasid Calif al-Nasir:
al-Iman al-Nas The Islamic Defender
ir lil-din [sic] of the Faith)
Amir al-mu'minin Commander of the believers/faithful
Central inscription: al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Amir al-Mu’minin (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225

Surrounding inscription: Husam al-Din Malik Diyar Bakr Yuluq Arslan b. Il Ghazi b. Artuq year 589

This obverse type also is paired with a different reverse from year 590, next, that names the new Ayyubid overlord Saif al-Din Abu Bakr.

S&S 35.2

S&S 35.2
30-29 mm. 12.02 grams.
Husam al-Din Yuluq Arslan
Struck AH 589. AD 1193.

Reverse: Central inscription of 5 lines with inscription on each side within a linear circle surrounded by a second inscription all within a circle of dots
The central 3-line inscription is the same as the coin above: al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Amir al-Mu’minin (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225)
The top and bottom lines and the sides: al-Malik al-‘Adil Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr b. Ayyub (his Ayyubid overlord, various reigns over various places)
Surrounding inscription: Husam al-Din Malik Diyar Bakr Yuluq Arslan b. Il Ghazi b. Artuq year 589
"Husam of the Faith, King of Diyarbakr, Yuluq Arslan, son of il-Ghazi, son of Artuq, year 589"

S&S 36

S&S 36
31 mm. 13.66 grams.
Husam al-Din Yuluq Arslan
AH 580-597. AD 1184-1201
Struck AH 596. AD 1200.

Obverse: seated figure holding sword in right hand and severed head in left hand, the Atabek Nur al-Din is recognized in inscription on the left, probably Nur al-Din Arslan Shah, the Zengid Atabek of Mosul (589-607/1193-1210), all within a circle of dots.
Inscription: Nur al-Din Atabek

Reverse: central inscription of three lines surrounded by linear circle surrounded by second inscription surrounded by linear circle surrounded by third inscription surrounded by circle of dots
Central inscription: al-Nasir li-Din Allah Amir al-Mu’minin [the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225]
Inner circular inscription: al-Malik al-Afdal ‘Ali wa ‘l-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi b. al-Malik al-Nasir Yusuf [Saladin]
Outer inscription: Husam al-Din Yuluq Arslan Malik Diyar Bakr b. Il Ghazi b. Artuq, struck in year 596

Variant: If there are four lines in the central inscription, it reads: Allah al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Amir al-Mu'minin, God, the Imam al-Nasir li-Din Amir al-Mu'minin [the Imam. the Protector of the Faith, the Commander of the Faithful]. The inner and outer circular inscriptions are the same.

Al-Malik al-Afdal ‘Ali and ‘l-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi were brothers and his Ayyubid overlords. They were sons of Saladin who is referred to here as "al-Malik al-Nasir Yusuf."

Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan, 1201-1239, of Mardin. Types 37-50

S&S 37.1

S&S 37.1 (facing slightly right with two-line inscription)
29-28 mm. 11.15 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
Struck AH 598. AD 1201.

Obverse: male bust facing forward, wearing mantle, drapery from his right shoulder over drapery from left shoulder, his left hand is visible, inscription around bust the top, all surrounded by a circle of dots
Inscription: Nasir al-Din Artuq Arslan

Reverse: central inscription in a six-pointed star with double linear border, second inscription between the angles of the points of the stars, all surrounded by a circle of dots [It is sometimes called a 4-line inscription, but two are very short. Compare with the next coin.]
Central inscription: al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Amir al-Mu’minin [the word "Allah" is missing and the words Amir al-Mu'minin are abbreviated, otherwise there would need to be three lines instead of two, as below] (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225)
Second inscription: Struck in 598

S&S 37.2
S&S 37.2 (facing slightly left with three-line reverse inscription and drapery reversed)
30-28 mm. 17.06 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
Struck AH 598. AD 1201.
Bust facing/legend in double six-pointed star
Bust facing, wild hair, drapery from his left shoulder over drapery from right shoulder, stars in fields left and right, legend:
[down left] Nasir al-Din A [up right] rtuq Arslan
Reverse legend: Allah
al-Iman al-Nasir
li-Din Amir al-mu'minin
al-Malik al-Zahir
Ghazi
Legend outside the star: Duriba sana thaman tis'in khamsa mia
(struck year eight (and) ninety (and) five hundred

S&S 38.1

S&S 38.1 (Centaur running left)
33-32 mm. 12.95 grams. Flan bent.

S&S 38.2

S&S 38.2 (Centaur running right)
29-27 mm. 8.50 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
as vassal of the Ayyubid al-Adil Abur Bakr AH 592-615 with calif al-Nasir AH 575-622.
Struck at Mardin. AH 599. AD 1201.

Obverse: Centaur archer running to right while shooting backwards at a dragon with open jaws, surrounded by an inscription all surrounded by a linear circle
Inscription: In Mardin in 599

Reverse: central inscription with second, continuing, inscription on each side all surrounded by a linear circle
Central inscription: al-Nasir li-Din Allah Amir al-Mu’minin (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225), al-Malik al-‘Adil Abu Bakr (the Ayyubid overlord), Malik Diyar Bakr Nasir al-Din Artuq Arslan b. Ayyub
Second inscription: Struck in 599

S&S 39

S&S 39
30-29 mm. 8.85 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.

Obverse: man riding a leopard (lion?) facing left, surrounded by an inscription all surrounded by a linear circle
Inscription: al-Malik al-‘Alim al-‘Adil Nasir al-Din Artuq Arslan Malik Diyar Bakr (the wise and just king Nasir al-Din Artuq Arslan king of Diyar Bakr)

Reverse: three-line central inscription with second inscription at the top and on each side of it and a third inscription around it all surrounded by a linear circle
Central inscription: al-Imam al-Nasir li-Din Allah Amir al-Mu’minin (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225)
Second inscription: 606
Surrounding inscription: al-Malik al-‘Adil Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr b. Ayyub (his overlord), struck in Mardin year

The Danishmendids issued an earlier type with a lion-rider wielding a sword.

Another S&S 39

S&S 39
29 mm. 10.98 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
Struck AH 606 at Mardin.

[as above]

A third S&S 39, larger

S&S 39
34-33 mm. 14.85 grams. Unusually large fan.
Overstruck with evidence on the reverse with lines slanted from at 10:30 to 5:00 and on the obverse from 7:30 to 4:00 (between the lion's legs).
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.

[as above]

S&S 40

S&S 40
24 mm. 6.77 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
Struck AH 611. AD 1214.

Obverse: Male bust almost facing, very slightly to left, hair disheveled, garment fastened with clasp at neckline, surrounded by an inscription all surrounded by a linear circle
Inscription: Nasir al-Dunya wa ‘l-Din Artuq Arslan Malik Diyar Bakr (king of Diyar Bakr)

Reverse: central inscription with inscription on right and left all surrounded by a linear circle
Central inscription: Abu ‘l-Abbas Ahmad al-Nasir li-Din Allah Amir al-Mu’minin (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225), al-Malik al-‘Adil Abu Bakr b. Ayyub (the Ayyubid overlord)
Lateral inscription: 611

(S&S 41 is not figural.)

S&S 42.2

S&S 42.2 [The bust on 42.1 faces slightly left instead of right.]
21-19 mm. 2.46 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
Struck AH 618 = 1221/2
Male bust facing slightly right, diadem, hair disheveled, inscription to right and left of bust/5-line legend with more at the sides
Obverse legend: [ḍarb sana] – thamān ʿashar wa sitta [miʾa]’ (Struck in the year 618).
Rev. ‘al-malik al-Kāmil / Muḥammad ibn Ayyūb (the Ayyubid overlord)/ al-malik al-manṣūr / Nāṣir al-Dīn Artuq’ (King al-Kamil Muhammad son of Ayyub. King al-Mansur Nasir al-Din Artuq)
To right and left, below and above, ‘[al-imām] – al-Nāṣir – li-Dīn – Allāh’ (Imam al-Nasir li-din Allah [the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225]).
The legend names the Ayyubid overlord al-Kamil Abu’l-Maʿali Muhammad (AH 615-635 / AD 1218-1238) and the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Nasir li-din Allah (AH 575-622 / AD 1180-1225),
Album 1830.6.
S&S, page 138, says "This is an exceptionally rare Turkoman type." However this is no longer so.
Here are two more examples.

S&S 42.2
22-20 mm. 5.04 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.

[as above]

S&S 42.2
24-23 mm. 5.89 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.

[as above]

S&S 43

S&S 43
29-27 mm. 14.63 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
Struck AH 620. AD 1224.

Obverse: male bust facing right, hair disheveled, inscription around bust, all within a linear circle
Inscription: al-Malik al-Mansur Nasir al-Dunya wa ‘l-Din Artuq Arslan

Reverse: five-line central inscription with inscription above it and to right and left
Central inscription: al-Nasir li-Din Allah Amir al-Mu’minin (the caliph, 575-622/1180-1225), al-Malik al-Kamil Nasir al-Din Muhammad b. Ayyub (the Ayyubid overlord)
Second inscription: Struck in year 620

S&S 43, another example, 3 mm larger.
32-30 mm. 13.44 grams.

S&S 44 (S&S 44 and S&S 47 are very similar.)
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.

S&S 46

S&S 46
27-26 mm. 6.82 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
Struck AH 628. AD1230.

Obverse: ruler seated cross-legged on a square platform, left hand at chest holding an orb, inscription to right and left of figure all within a linear circle
Central inscription: Nasir al-Din Artuq Arslan

Reverse: central inscription with second inscription to right and left
Central inscription: bi-‘llah al-Imam al-Mustansir (the caliph, 623-40/1226-42), Amir al-Mu’minin, al-Malik al-Kamil Muhammad (Ayyubid overlord)
Inscription to right and left: Struck in year 628

S&S 47 (cf. S&S 44 above, which is very similar. The head on S&S 44 is usually smaller).

S&S 47
28-24 mm. 9.08 grams.
Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan
AH 597-637. AD 1201-1239.
Large head with narrow chin facing forward/5-line legend with smaller lines at top, left and right.
Obverse: large crude head facing forward, almond eyes, curly hair, wearing mantle with clasp in front, surrounded by an inscription all within a linear circle
Inscription: al-Sultan al-Mu’azzam ‘Ala’ al-Dunya wa ‘l-Din Kay Qubadh Qasim Amir al-Mu’minin (this is his Seljuk overlord, Kay Qubadh I) Reverse: five-line central inscription with second inscription at the top and at right and left, all within a linear circle
Central inscription: al-Imam al-Mustansir bi-‘llah (the caliph, 623-40/1226-42), Amir al-Mu’minin, al-Malik al-Mansur Artuq
Second inscription: Struck in Mardin in year 63x [632 or 633 or 634]

S&S 49

S&S 49
24.5 mm. 3.07 grams (It is thin).
Najm al-Din Ghazi I, al-Said
(son of Nasir al-Din Artuq-Arslan, above)
AH 637-658. AD 1239-1260.
Struck 654 or 655 at Mardin.
Crude male head facing, legend around, from 5:00:
"Al-Imam al-Musta'sim bi-llah amir al-mu'minin."
The Imam al-Musta'sim bi-llah (the caliph), Commander of the Faithful.
Reverse: Two lines of legend plus two smaller and shorter lines above and below them, with a square box of dots. Legend outside each side of the square.
Four lines in the square: Yusuf (Joseph)/ al-Malik al-Nasir (king Nasir)/ al-Malik al-Sa'id (king al-Said)/Ghazi
The name of the ruler of Mardin, al-Malik al-Sa'id Ghazi, and the name of his sovereign in Aleppo, al-Malik al-Nasir Yusuf (1236-1260).
Outside the square from the top counterclockwise: duriba bi-Mardin" (struck at Mardin)/sanat (year)/four [or five] and fifty/and six hundred. [Not all legible on this piece]

S&S 50

S&S 50
20-19 mm. 2.52 grams.
Qara Arslan
(al-Muzaffar Fakr al-Din Qara Arslan)
AH 659-693. AD 1260-1294.
Several dates are possible: 673, 68x, 692, 693. The date on this coin is not legible.

Obverse: Sun face surrounded by rays within a beaded square, inscription on each side of square
Inscription: Struck in Mardin in . . .

Reverse: central inscription surrounded by a circular inscription within a circle of dots
Central inscription: There is no god but God alone, He has no partner, Muhamad is the messenger of God
Surrounding inscription: It probably says al-Malik al-Muzaffar Fakhr al-Dunya wa ‘l-Din Qara Arslan b. Artuq ‘Azza nasruhu (may his victory be glorified)

Zengids (in volume 2)

S&S 59 (The obverse is much like S&S 66)

S&S 59. Zengid
29-28 mm. 11.09 grams.
Qutb al-Din Mawdud
AH 544-565. AD 1149-11170.

S&S 61

S&S 61. Zengid
30 mm. 17.26 grams.
Saif al-Din Ghazi II
AH 565-576. AD 1170-1180.
Struck 575 AH at al-Jazira.

S&S 63

S&S 63. Zengid
29 mm. 13.34 grams.
'Izz ad-Din Mas'ud I
AH 575-589. AD 1180-1193.
Struck AH 585. AD 1189.

Obverse: Crowned female figure seated facing cross-legged with right boot visible, holding in uplifted hands a large crescent which forms a complete circle tapering towards the top over the figure’s head

Margin: upwards on right: duriba bi’l-mawsil, upwards on crescent to right: sana, to left: khams, downwards on left: wa thamanin wa khamsmi’a
“struck in al-Mawsil the year five and eighty and five hundred”

Reverse. Central inscription: la ilah illa allah muhammad / rasul allah al-nasir / li-din allah amir al-mu’ / minin ‘uddat al-dunya wa / ’l-din abu nasr muhammad
“no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God, al-Nasir li-Din Allah, Commander of the faithful,
‘Uddat al-Dunya wa’l-Din, Father of Victory, Muhammad”
Margin: upwards on right: al-malik al-‘adil, at top: mas‘ud ibn mawdud, downwards on left: al-malik al-nasir, at bottom: yusuf ibn ayyub
“the Just King, Mas’ud ibn Mawdud, the Victorious King, Yusuf ibn Ayyub”
[See also DC.]

S&S 65

S&S 65. Zengid
26 mm. 11.62 grams.
Izz ad-Din Mas'ud I
AH 575-589. AD 1180-1193.
Struck AH 607 or 608.

S&S 66 (The obverse is much like S&S 59)

S&S 66. Zengid
31-30 mm. 13.94 grams.
Nasir al-Din Mahmud
AH 616-631. AD 1219-1234.
Zengid atabeg of Mosul
Male head facing very slightly left, two winger creatures flying above
Reverse: 5-line legend with legends on each side
Obvserse inscription: Duriba bi'l-Mawsil sana 'ishrin wa sittami'a (Struck in Mosul year six hundred twenty)
Reverse central inscription:
La ilaha illa Allah Muhammad
Rasul Allah al-Nasir
Li-din Allah Amir al-mu-
minin 'Uddat al-Dunya wa
al-Din Abu Nasr Muhammad
Right: Nasir al-Din
Top: Atabeg Mahmud
Left: al-Malik aKamil
Bottom: al-Malik al-Ashraf

S&S 68

S&S 68. Zengid
25 mm. 6.06 grams.
Badr al-Din Lu'Lu'
AH 631-657. AD 1233-1258.
Struck with frozen date 631.
The Lu’lu’id Rulers of Mosul, 631-660 H/1233-1261 AD
Mint: al-Mawsil – Mosul, formerly the chief town of Diyar Rab‘ia in the Jazira
Obverse. Diademed head in profile facing left, hair in ringlets,
eight-pointed star in bottom left corner, in beaded square
Margin at 3:00: duriba bi’l-maw, at 12:00 sil sana, at 9:00: ahad wa thalathin, at 6:00: wa sittmi’a
“struck in al-Mawsil the year one and thirty and six hundred”.
Reverse: 4-line legend in center:
in Naskh script al-imam / al-mustansir / billah amir / al-mu’minin
“the Imam, al-Mustansir billah, Commander of the Faithful”

Margin: badr al-dunya wa’l-din lu‘lu‘ al-malik al-kamil al-malik al-ashraf
“Resplendent Moon of the World and the Faith, Lu‘lu‘, the Perfect King, the Honoured King”
[See also DC.] A Numis Forums post on his history.

(Types 69, 70, and 72 are not figural.)

S&S 73

S&S 73. Zengid
23 mm. 3.20 grams.
Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zengi
AH 541-569. AD 1146-1174
Undated.

Obverse. Two Byzantine-style standing figures facing forwards supporting a labarum (standard) resting on three steps, within circle of small beads,
Downwards on left: downwards left of the standard: al-‘adil, downwards right of the standard: nur al-din, to the right: ING
“the Just, Light of the Faith”
Margin: malik …
“King …”

Reverse. Figure of Christ standing, facing forward, holding book in left hand and with right hand on hip, with blundered imitations of Greek legends to left and right, within a circle of small beads,
Downwards on right: mahmud downwards on left: malik al-umara’
“Mahmud, King of the Princes”
[See also DC.]

The prototype is a common type of the Byzantine emperor Constantine X (1059-1067):

Constantine X and Eudocia, 1057-1067
29-28 mm. 10.58 grams.
Sear, Byzantine Coins and Their Values, 1853.
This type is larger and heavier than its Zengid imitations. Also, the characteristics of the Zengid flans suggests that the Zangids struck the side with the emperors as the obverse, reversing the Byzantine orientation.

Another S&S 73

S&S 73. Zengid
26-25 mm. 4.70 grams.
Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zengi
AH 541-569. AD 1146-1174
Undated.
S&S treat the two-figure side as the obverse, which the shape of this flan confirms.

(Types 74 and 75 are not figural.)

S&S 76

S&S 76. Zengid
22-20 mm. 3.10 grams.
Al-Salih Isma'il
AH 568-577. AD 1174-1181.
Struck at Aleppo (Halab) AH 571.

(S&S Types 77 and 78 are not figural.)

S&S 79

S&S 79. Zengid
24 mm. 7.24 grams.
'Imad al-Din Zengi II
Struck at Sinjar, AH 581-592

(Type 80 is not figural.)

S&S 81
S&S 81.1. Zengid
27-25 mm. 12.67 grams.
Quth al-Din Muhammad b. Zengi
AH 594-615. AD 1197-1219.
Tamga before face.
The earliest issue of AH 596, distinguished by the tamgha.

S&S 81. Zengid
25 mm. 11.28 grams.
Quth al-Din Muhammad b. Zengi
AH 594-615. AD 1197-1219.
(no tamgha)
Struck at Sinjar, AH 596 or 598-600.

S&S 82

S&S 82. Zengid
28 mm. 15.81 grams.
Quth al-Din Muhammad b. Zengi
AH 594-615. AD 1197-1219.
Struck AH 600-602.

(Types and 86 and 89 feature a central tangha, but no figure.)

Dates: Many Turkoman (and other Islamic) coins have the dates on them explicitly, e.g. year 562. Of course, these are AH dates from the Islamic era. Those years do not correspond exactly with AD years. AH years are 3% shorter. This table gives the AD year with the most overlap. So, year 562 falls mostly in AD 1167.

AH to AD dates
AH	540	550	560	570	580	590	600	610	620	630	640	650	660	670
AD	1145	1155	1165	1175	1184	1194	1204	1213	1223	1233	1243	1252	1262	1272

For equivalents of AH dates to the nearest day, see Mitcher's World of Islam, p. 43ff.

References works and credits are on their own page.

Here is a page about legends on Turkoman coins.

The coins above are all referenced in the volumes by Spengler and Sayles. For Turkoman bronzes not in the Spengler and Sayles volumes, see here.

Go to the main Table of Contents of this educational site.