A copper coin of Constantine the Great with the title "FIL AVG." 

It is 24 mm in diameter and 6.03 grams. It is a "follis," and was struck in 309 AD at Antioch.

 

by Warren Esty, copyright 1997-2023. This article originally appeared as the cover article in The Celator,  September, 1997. 

It has been modified with additional photos and comments.
      (Skip down to the table listing all the FIL AVG types which is followed by the pictures of coins with FIL AVG.)
      (Skip down to the Second Tetrarchy or the Carnuntum decisions.) 
          

    The Caesar Constantine took the title Augustus in the West in 307 without the consent of the East. Before the East also recognized him as Augustus he was awarded by Galerius the ephemeral imperial title Filius Augusti, "Son of the Augusti." "FIL AVG" and "FIL AVGG" appear only on coins of Constantine and Maximinus II, and, because both rejected the title, only on coins issued in their names from mints they did not control. The story begins in the context of the tetrarchic system in July 306 when the western Augustus Constantius I, terminally ill, gave his son Constantine imperial power. It ends in mid 310 when events forced the eastern Augustus Galerius to recognize Constantine and Maximinus II as Augusti. Coins illustrate the complicated power struggle during these four years.¹

    The first tetrarchy was a new governmental system for sharing power that was created by Diocletian. After becoming emperor in 284, Diocletian chose a colleague, Maximian, to rule in the West in 286. Diocletian associated himself with the god Jupiter and Maximian with Hercules. To distinguish Maximian from other rulers with very similar names, he is sometimes called Herculius.² The first tetrarchy originated in 293 when each Augustus took a junior ruler, a Caesar, as an associate, to make a total of four simultaneous rulers (tetra means four in Greek, arches means ruler ). Constantius became Caesar in the West and Galerius became Caesar in the East.³ These two new rulers were not sons, or even close relatives, of the Augusti. At this stage the Jovian and Herculian dynasties relied on adoption of highly-qualified candidates who were then married into the dynasty.⁴

 

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The First Tetrarchy (293-305).  It began when Constantius and Galerius were made Caesars.   

First Tetrarchy	West	East
Augustus	Maximian	Diocletian
Caesar	Constantius	Galerius

          Mints in both East and West respectfully struck coins in the names of all four colleagues. There is a page on coins of the First Tetrarchy.

          The second tetrarchy began with the retirements of Diocletian (Coin 1A) and Maximian (Coin 1B) in 305  and the simultaneous elevation of Constantius and Galerius (Coin 1) to Augusti and the creation of Severus II as western Caesar and Maximinus II as eastern Caesar.

  Coin 1A
  Diocletian, who retired in 305 AD. 
  27 mm. 12:00.
  Struck May 305 to early 307 at Trier.
  DN DIOCLETIANO FELISSIMO SEN AVG
  "SEN" for SENior, retired, augustus.
  PROVIDENTIA DEORVM QVIES AVGG

 

    Coin 1B

  Maximian, who retired in 305 AD.    
  27 mm.     
  Struck May 305 - early 307 at Trier.    
  DN MAXIMIANO FELICISSIMO SEN AVG     
  PROVIDENTIA DEORVM QVIES AVGG

 

 

  Coin 1
  Galerius , as Augustus  
  27 mm.
  Struck c. 305 at Aquileia.  
  IMP MAXIMIANVS PF AVG  
  FIDES MILTITVM AVGG ET CAESS NN

 

 

(Comments for collectors about the values of these coins.)

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The Second Tetrarchy.

The Second Tetrarchy, May 1, 305- July 25, 306

Second Tetrarchy	West	East
Augustus	Constantius	Galerius [1]
Caesar	Severus II	Maximinus II
Retired Augusti	Diocletian [1A]	Maximian [1B]

 

Relatives, soon to be rulers:  Maxentius, son of Maximian and Constantine, son of Constantius

              Regions of the Second Tetrarchy:

            Constantius: Gaul, Spain, and Britain (primary mint, Trier)

            Severus: The former territory of Herculius: Italy, Africa, Pannonia (including Siscia)

            Galerius: Asia Minor, Greece, eastern Illyricum

            Maximinus: Syria and Egypt
 

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     The mints of 306-310 are given below in an appendix. During the second tetrarchy mints all across the empire continued to strike coins for all four active rulers, as well as for Diocletian and Maximian as retired, "senior," emperors.⁵

     The Augustus we call Galerius was named Galerius Maximianus. His coins which used legends such as IMP MAXIMIANVS PF AVG [1] can easily be confused with coins of Maximianus Herculius . Since Herculius was never titled Caesar on coins and Galerius was, when coins of "MAXIMIANVS" use the title NOB C instead of AVG, they belong to Galerius. Galerius's coins as Augustus can be distinguished by type, size, and sometimes by the legend containing GAL VAL preceding MAXIMIANVS [Coin 2].  However, one must be careful to note that only the extra "A" distinguishes (GAL VAL) MAXIMIANVS (Galerius) from (GAL VAL) MAXIMINVS (Maximinus [Coin 3]), both as Caesar and as Augustus.

     Again the two new rulers were not natural sons of the Augusti, but were adopted into the dynasties. This is remarkable, especially considering Maximian Herculius had an eligible son, Maxentius, and Constantius had an eligible son, Constantine. Even the philosopher emperor Marcus Aurelius had chosen his son, Commodus, to succeed him rather than continue the adoptive system that had resulted in "the good emperors" of the second century. However, reversion to a dynasty based on blood relationship was presaged with the appointment of Maximinus, who was a nephew of Galerius and not an experienced soldier.

      The upcoming events occur largely in the west, leaving the eastern situation basically unchanged. That is, Galerius remained eastern Augustus and Maximinus remained second in command in the east until mid 310. Nevertheless, coins minted in the East reflect the turmoil in the West as new rulers and titles were or were not accepted in the East as legitimate.

       In July 306, when Constantius was terminally ill on campaign at York, England, he exercised his right as Augustus to award his own son, Constantine, imperium, that is, imperial power. The western army of Constantius acclaimed Constantine. Galerius was left out of the selection process. When Constantius died July 25, the Caesar Severus was promoted to Augustus of the West as expected [Coin 4], and there was nothing for Galerius to do but accept the popular son of Constantius, Constantine, as the new western Caesar [Coin 5]. Constantine took over Constantius's portion of the empire and began minting coins as Caesar, with Trier his primary mint ⁶ [Coin 6].
 

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The Third Tetrarchy (July 25, 306 - c. April, 307).  

The Third Tetrarchy (July 25, 306 - c. April, 307)

	West	East
Augustus	Severus II  [4]	Galerius [2]
Caesar	Constantine [5, 6]	Maximinus II [3]

During this short period, mints of each of the four legitimate rulers struck for the other legitimate rulers and the two retired emperors.

 

  Coin 2
  Galerius, as Augustus
  25 mm.
  Struck late 308 - 310
  at Alexandria
  IMP C GAL VAL MAXIMIANVS PF AVG
  [not MAXIMINVS, compare to the next coin.]
  GENIO IMPERATORIS

 

  Coin 3
  Maximinus II
  23 mm. 12:00.
  Struck 312 as Augustus at his own mint Alexandria
  IMP C GAL VAL MAXIMINVS PF AVG
  [not MAXIMIANVS, compare to the previous coin.]
  GENIO AVGVSTI

 

 
  Coin 4
  Severus II
  28-25 mm. 12:00.
  Struck December 306
  at Ticinum, his own mint.
  IMP SEVERVS PF AVG
  FIDES MILITVM

 

 

  Coin 5
  Constantine as Caesar
  27 mm. 10.60 grams. 6:00.
  Struck 306 at Cyzicus, a mint of Galerius.
  FL VAL CONSTANTINVS NOB CAES
  GENIO AVG ET CAESARVM NN

 

  Coin 6
   Constantine as Caesar
    29-28 mm. 5:30.
    Struck c. Spring 307 at Trier, his own mint.
   FL VAL CONSTANTINVS NOB C
   GENIO POPVLI ROMANI

   From 293 to 306 was apparently long enough to accustom people to this new system with two Augusti and two Caesars. Every member was according respect to every other member. But we can imagine Maximinus II must have been irritated to see Severus attain the status of Augustus after only 1 year. Also, quite a few people must have been concerned that Constantine had been able to advance without the consent of the other rulers by the old tried-and-true military method, making an end run around the system. If he could, why couldn't they?   

    Maxentius did. Son of the retired Herculian Augustus Maximian, he usurped power at Rome in Severus' territory on October 28, 306, while Severus was in the north. Most soldiers near the traditional center of the empire had served under Maximian Herculius and looked favorably on his son's coup. Maxentius knew he had formidable opponents and enlisted the aid of his father Maximian, who more-than-willingly left retirement and assumed his former position of Augustus. Who was to stop them? 

    Rare coins show the hesitant nature of Maxentius' entry in the sweepstakes. He began with the un-tetrarchic inferior title "Princips" and then "Caesar" (at Carthage only) while recognizing his father as active (as opposed to retired) Augustus [Coin 7]. He apparently took the supreme title Augustus c. summer 307 [Coin 8], well after the revolt, but before he struck many coins in his own name.

    The revolt necessarily provoked an immediate reaction from the legitimate members of the system, especially Galerius and Severus. Maxentius tried to stay on the good side of Constantine by minting for him [Coin 9], but Constantine did not return the favor.⁷

 

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Mints striking for various rulers, Late 306 - Summer 307

(i.e. Revolt of Maxentius - death of Severus)

For Maxentius: Only his own mints. Only very rare coins as Princips until c. summer 307 and coins as Caesar only at Carthage
(which probably expected Maximian Herculius to be the sole western Augustus).
Coins as Augustus commence after summer 307 [8].

For Maximian Herculius, as active, senior, Augustus: Mints of Maxentius [7]. As senior Augustus at Constantine's mints [10]. As retired Augustus with Diocletian, at Constantine's mints and throughout the East.

For Constantine as Caesar: Mints of Constantine [6], Maxentius, Severus, Galerius [5], and Maximinus [11]. That is, mints of all "legitimate" rulers and also mints of the usurper Maxentius.

For Severus and Galerius: Mints of Severus [4], Galerius, Maximinus, and Constantine, but not mints of Maxentius.

For Maximinus II: Mints of Severus, Galerius, Maximinus, and Constantine [12], and Carthage, a mint of Maxentius.

            In summary, the four recognized members of the third tetrarchy struck for each other, but not for Maxentius. Maxentius struck for himself, for his father as Augustus, for Constantine and Maximinus as Caesars, but not for the other two members of the tetrarchy.
 

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  Coin 7 
  Maximian, as active Augustus
  29-27 mm. 12:00.
  Struck late 306 - early 307
  at Carthage, a mint of Maxentius, his son. 
  IMP MAXIMIANVS SEN AVG
  CONSERVATOR AFRICAE SVAE >

 

  Coin 8
  Maxentius
  26-25 mm. 6.55 grams. 12:00.
  Struck as Augustus, late summer 307
  at Aquileia, his own mint. 
  IMP C MAXENTIVS PF AVG
  CONSERV VRB SVAE
 

 

  Coin 9
  Constantine, as Caesar
  26 mm. 6:00.
  Struck late summer, 307 at Aquileia, a mint of Maxentius.   
  CONSTANTINVS NOB CAES
  CONSERV VRB SVAE

 

  Coin 10
  Maximian as Senior Augustus.
  25-24 mm.
  at London, a mint of Constantine.
  Struck summer 307.
  DN MAXIMIANO S AVG
  "S" for Senior.
  GENIO POP ROM

 

  Coin 11
  Constantine, as Caesar
  20 mm.
  Struck Autumn 306 - early 307 at Alexandria,
  a mint of Maximinus II.
  FL VAL CONSTANTINVS NOB CAES
  CONCORDIA MILITVM
 

  Coin 12
  Maximinus II, as Caesar
  27 mm.
  Struck 1 May 305 - early 307
  at Trier, a mint of Constantine
  GAL VAL MAXIMINVS NOB C
  GENIO POPVLI ROMANI

    Galerius ordered Severus to recover Rome. After all, Severus was supposed to be Augustus of the West, although his capital was Milan and his mints were Ticinum [Coin 4], Aquileia, and Siscia. Severus' advance toward and subsequent siege of Rome in Spring 307 failed dismally because his soldiers, many of whom had served under Maximian, melted away as they succumbed to bribes or were simply unwilling to fight. At the approach of an army under Maximian, Severus retreated to Ravenna where he was forced to surrender. At first held as a hostage against Galerius, he was soon put to death.

     As Severus' failure became apparent, Galerius decided to try to recover Rome himself.  Anticipating the attack, Maximian fortified Rome and then went to enlist Constantine's aid. He used his authority as an active Augustus to confirm Constantine in power and cemented the relationship by giving the hand of his daughter, Fausta, to Constantine in marriage. Galerius' attack failed for the same reasons as Severus', and he retreated to Illyricum, perhaps even before the return of Maximian to Rome. So Maxentius controlled Carthage, Rome, Ticinum, and Aquileia, but not Siscia.

     All this happened by summer of 307. With the western Augustus Severus dead and the position vacant, it is not surprising that Constantine took the title of Augustus (July 25, 307)⁸ [Coin 13]. Nor is it surprising that Maxentius did, too [Coin 8].

 

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Late Summer 307 - Late 308
(i.e. After Constantine is declared Augustus,
but before the Conference at Carnuntum)

	West	East
Augustus	Maxentius, Maximian [14,15], Constantine [13]	Galerius
Caesar	none	Maximinus II

Rulers did not necessarily recognize each other's titles, unlike under the tetrarchic system.

Mints striking for various rulers, Late Summer 307 - Late 308

              For Constantine: Constantine's mints [13], and Maxentius' mints until the break in Spring 308 [9].

              For Maxentius: Only his own mints [8].⁹

              For Maximian Herculius as an active ruler: Constantine's mints [15], and Maxentius' mints until the break in Spring 308 [14].
                                                 As retired with Diocletian: Eastern mints [16].

              For Galerius and for Maximinus II: Mints of Galerius and Maximinus.¹
 

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  Coin 13
  Constantine
  Struck autumn 307-end of 308 at Trier
  IMP CONSTANTINVS PF AVG
  MARTI PATRI CONSERVATORI


 

  Coin 14
  Maximian, as active Augustus
  25 mm.
  Struck Autumn 307 - c.309/310
  at Aquileia.
  IMP C MAXIMIANVS PF AVG
  CONSERV VRB SVAE

 

  Coin 15 
  Maximian, as active Augustus
  27 mm.
  Struck Autumn 307 - end of 308  
  at Trier, a mint of Constantine.
  IMP C VAL MAXIMIANVS PF AVG
  GENIO POP ROM

 

  Coin 16
  Maximian, who retired in 305 AD.    
  22 mm. 3.06 grams. 12:00.   
  Struck early to mid 308  at Alexandria.    
  DN MAXIMIANO FELICISSIM      
  PROVIDENTIA DEORVM

     Maxentius' claim to fame was only that he was the son of Maximian, but Maxentius kept power for himself. Maximian tried, but was unable to convince the army to follow him instead of his son. This broke their alliance and Maximian sought refuge with Constantine (Spring 308). This relocation was mutually beneficial. Maximian joined someone with military power who was willing to accord him the status of active Augustus. Constantine gained the support of a well-known elder statesman.

   The respectful recognition on coins of co-rulers that had been a remarkable aspect of the tetrarchic system gave way to recognition based solely on power politics. Maxentius was a usurper and his omission from the coins of the mints of Constantine and the eastern rulers is only to be expected. However, Maxentius minted for Constantine until the break with his father in Spring 308. Constantine did not mint for Maxentius or the eastern rulers. 

    The death of Severus and Constantine's promotion to Augustus without eastern approval left the East unwilling to recognize anyone in the West. When Severus' death caused his disappearance from issues at eastern mints, Constantine disappeared too.¹¹

    The western rulers Maxentius, Maximian, and Constantine, all claiming to be Augustus, clearly had rejected the method of orderly succession formerly associated with the tetrarchic system. Nevertheless, each probably would have been pleased to have no rivals and be the only western Augustus, recognized by the East in a restored system.  
 

 Carnuntum.  Galerius, the senior emperor, wanted to restore the old order. He persuaded the retired Diocletian to lend his authority to a reconciliation conference to be held at Carnuntum (on the Danube, just east of Vienna) in late 308.¹² Maximian also came. The results were (1) Maximian was forced to retire again, (2) a new man, Licinius, was promoted to Augustus of the West without ever having been Caesar, (3) Constantine was demoted back to Caesar, and (4) Maxentius was declared a public enemy. That these decisions did not please everybody is obvious. 

The Carnuntum Decisions, Late 308. 
 

The Carnuntum Decisions, Late 308

	West	East
Augustus	Licinius	Galerius
Caesar	Constantine	Maximinus II

       Maximian--retired, for the second time
       Maxentius--"public enemy"
 

Maximian Herculius lost all rank and became a "private citizen." Because he had no army, he could only go back to live under the wing of Constantine. Of course, Constantine refused his demotion, and Maximinus protested the elevation of Licinius. Galerius tried to strike a compromise by inventing and awarding the title "Filius Augusti" to these two. Regardless of whether it was supposed to be a rank higher than Caesar, Maximinus would not have it and continued to strike coins for himself with his old title Caesar [Coin 17]. Constantine continued to strike with the title Augustus. Coins show each as FIL AVG or FIL AVGG, but only at mints they did not influence. Galerius, who thought up the idea, struck FIL AVGG coins (with two G's) for both Constantine and Maximinus II at Siscia and Thessalonica [Coins 18-22]. In addition, FIL AVG coins (with one G) were struck by Galerius for Constantine at Nicomedia and by Maximinus for Constantine at Antioch and Alexandria [Coins 23-25].¹³    Maximinus did not strike them for himself [Coin 17]. Other eastern mints simply did not strike for Constantine at all. Constantine did not strike for Galerius ever again, or for Maximinus until he became Augustus with Constantine in mid 310.  
 

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FIL AVG(G) types of Constantine and Maximinus II (late 308 - mid 310) 

FIL AVG(G) types of Constantine and Maximinus II
(late 308 - mid 310)

Ruler	Reverse Legend	Mint	RIC#
Constantine	GENIO AVGVSTI [21]	Siscia	200b
"	GENIO CAESARIS	Siscia	203
"	GENIO CAESARIS [22]	Thessalonica	32b
"	GENIO CAESARIS	Antioch	104
"	GENIO CAESARIS [25]	Alexandria	99b, 100b
"	GENIO CAESARIS CMH 14 [23]	Nicomedia	56
"	GENIO FIL AVGG [24]	Antioch	105, 111
"	VIRTVTI EXERCITVS [20]	Thessalonica	39b
"	VIRTVTI EXERCITVS CMH	Nicomedia	61
"	VIRTVS EXERCITVS	Alexandria	113, 117
Maximinus II	GENIO AVGVSTI [18]	Siscia	200a
"	GENIO CAESARIS [19]	Thessalonica	32a
"	VIRTVTI EXERCITVS [20]	Thessalonica	39a

Notes : The three GENIO legends are all associated with the same design: Genius standing left holding patera and cornucopia. This is the same design as on the common GENIO POPVLI ROMANI type. The VIRTVS EXERCITVS type shows a helmeted Virtus advancing right in military dress, holding transverse spear in his right hand and a trophy over his shoulder with his left. It was new with the first issue of Licinius [Coin 26].

       At Siscia and Thessalonica, obverses have FIL AVGG with two Gs.

       At Nicomedia, Antioch, and Alexandria, obverses have FIL AVG with only one G.

       For Constantine, the difference between Alexandria 99b and 100b is extremely minor, divergent or parallel wreath ties, which is also the difference between Alexandria 113b and 117b.

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  Coin 17
  Maximinus II, as Caesar
  25 mm.
  Struck late 308 - 310
  at Alexandria, his own mint,
  without the FIL AVG title.
  GAL VAL MAXIMINUS NOB CAES
  GENIO CAESARIS
 

  Coin 18
  Maximinus II, as FIL AVGG
  25-23 mm.
  Struck c.309 - May 310
  at Siscia, a mint of Galerius
  MAXIMINVS FIL AVGG
  GENIO AVGVSTI
 

 

  Coin 19
  Maximinus II, as FIL AVGG
  25 mm.
  Struck late 308 - May 310
  at Thessalonia, a mint of Galerius.
  MAXIMINVS FIL AVGG
  GENIO CAESARIS

 

  Coin 20
  Maximinus II, as FIL AVGG
  25-23 mm.
  Struck late 308 - May 310
  at Thessalonica, a mint of Galerius
  MAXIMINVS FIL AVGG
  VIRTVTI EXERCITVS

 

  Coin 21
  Constantine, as FIL AVGG
  27-26 mm. 5.08 grams.
  Struck late 308 - May 310
  at Siscia, a mint of Galerius
  CONSTANTINVS FIL AVGG
  GENIO AVGVSTI
  RIC Siscia 200b 

   Coin 22
  Constantine, as FIL AVGG
  25-23 mm. 6.41 grams.
  Struck late 308 - May 310
  at Thessalonica, a mint of Galerius
  CONSTANTINVS FIL AVGG
  GENIO CAESARIS
  RIC Thessalonica 31b